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Decentralized governance in Ghana is aimed at spreading development. Such intention to some extent is marred by communal conflicts.
A case studied is the Bawku conflict. The Municipal Assembly over the years has put in measures to prevent and mediate the conflict against further violence. The study therefore seeks to find out whether the Municipal Assembly which is the planning authority uses that function to plan to overcome conflict. It is a case study.
Purposive and random sampling techniques were used to select institutions and respondents for interview. The study revealed that the Assembly has not been able to implement its Development Plans. The dynamics of the conflict also indicate that the factions have maintained their opposing positions. Besides, the Assembly has never prepared any conflict management plan to address recurrent conflicts. The study concludes that collaborative approach though difficult, is a better option for conflict management between factions. There will also be the need for the Assembly to be interested in designing conflict management plans, strengthening capacity of the Municipal Planning and Coordinating Unit, capitalization of conflict planned program and adoption of decentralized institutional arrangement for conflict monitoring and evaluation. Such processes are ‘sine qua non’ to pre-conflict and post-conflict prevention.
European Scientific Journal March 2013 edition vol.9DECENTRALISE PLANNING FOR PRE-CONFLICT AND POST-CONFLICT MANAGEMENT, BAWKU MUNICIPAL ASSEMBLY, GHANAAasoglenang Arkum Thaddeus 00 Department of Community Development, Faculty of Planning and Land Management, University for Development Studies, Wa, Ghana Baataar Cuthbert Department of African Studies and General Studies, Faculty of Integrated Development Studies, University for Development Studies, Wa, GhanaDecentralized governance in Ghana is aimed at spreading development. Such intention to some extent is marred by communal conflicts. A case studied is the Bawku conflict.
The Municipal Assembly over the years has put in measures to prevent and mediate the conflict against further violence. The study therefore seeks to find out whether the Municipal Assembly which is the planning authority uses that function to plan to overcome conflict.
It is a case study. Purposive and random sampling techniques were used to select institutions and respondents for interview. The study revealed that the Assembly has not been able to implement its Development Plans. The dynamics of the conflict also indicate that the factions have maintained their opposing positions.
Besides, the Assembly has never prepared any conflict management plan to address recurrent conflicts. The study concludes that collaborative approach though difficult, is a better option for conflict management between factions.
There will also be the need for the Assembly to be interested in designing conflict management plans, strengthening capacity of the Municipal Planning and Coordinating Unit, capitalization of conflict planned program and adoption of decentralized institutional arrangement for conflict monitoring and evaluation. Such processes are 'sine qua non' to preconflict and post-conflict prevention.Decentralization; Conflict; Pre-conflict; Post-conflict; Planning; Management-BackgroundIt has been observed that after achieving political independence, many governments insub-Saharan Africa were faced with numerous development challenges, hence, their attentionwas on nation building and they invested heavily in programs that were centrally managedaround the 1950s and 1960s.
To address the shortcomings of the centrally managedprograms in the 1970s and early 1980s some of the countries especially Ghana, opted forpublic sector reforms, hence introduced decentralized governance to facilitate development atthe grassroots level as a vehicle to distribute the benefits of economic growth more equitablyto increase the productivity and income of all segments of society and to raise the livingstandards of the poor (Akuoko-Frimpong, 1994: 1). However, the very best reform effortto some extent has not yielded much result in some districts and regions in Ghana due to theemergence of conflicts and hostilities.Contextualizing the Bawku Municipality in particular, it has experienced numerousinter-ethnic conflicts since the 1930s due to chieftaincy succession as the root cause. Indeed,the consequences of conflicts on the people of Bawku are enormous. Referring to thesubjectmatter, Harris (1999:15) in a study of The Cost of Armed Conflicts in DevelopingCountries, indicated that violence had several economic implications including: closedhealth post, absence of teachers, empty shops and markets. It also means food shortages dueto the disruption of farming, transportation and trade. Presently, the Bawku Municipality andits environs is likened to the above description.
This development has created a newdimension of social life where children (potential marriage partners) are discouraged fromengaging in any affair with the enemy ethnic group. For over a decade now public sectorworkers have left the Municipality and farming activities are often disrupted as a result of thedenial of some ethnic minorities to have access to farmlands.The Bawku Municipality which was created by Legislative Instrument (LI) 1439 in1989 and charged with the responsibility of ensuring the overall development of the place hasnot been able to find any lasting solution to the problem of violent conflicts. Article 240 (2)(b) of the 1992 Fourth Republican Constitution of Ghana stipulates among others thatmeasures should be taken to enhance the capacities of local authorities to plan, initiate,coordinate, manage and execute policies in respect of matters affecting the local people.
TheLocal Government Act, 1993, Act 462 also emphasizes the important role DistrictAssemblies (DAs) can play in the New Planning System. More importantly section 46 (1)and (2) of the Act, which establishes them as District Planning Authorities with planningfunctions provided in section (2) of the National Development Planning (System) Act, 1994,Act 480. This therefore means that planning is an important component in the success of alldevelopment initiatives, which implicitly includes conflict management.
Due to the enormouspowers at the disposal of the DAs, it was the expectation that the Bawku Municipal Assemblywould have been in a position to explore the dictates of the Acts to come out with strategicplan(s) to deal with the conflict situations but this is not the case. Several Plans have beenformulated over the years by the Municipal Assembly but the prevalence of conflicts hasremained high. Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) have for some time now, devotedconsiderable amounts of resources in support of the Bawku Peace Initiative (BPI) effortsaimed at bringing lasting peace and order to the place but the conflict still looms in the area.The above state of affairs leaves much to be desired. Thus divergent actors have capitalizedon the above weaknesses to perpetuate conflict in order to enforce their positions. In themidst of this, two main questions could also be asked thus: 1) Does the Municipal Assemblyconsider conflict resolution and management mechanism as an important ingredient inprogram/project success and therefore requiring mainstreaming? 2) Also in the wake of theprolonged conflict, how is conflict managed through district development planning in theBawku Municipal Assembly?
It is in this respect that the study seeks to examine how conflictis viewed as a development problem requiring special attention to be addressed throughdistrict planning. It also looks at systems put in place within the context of developmentplanning to optimize the achievement of development goals and especially poverty reductionin Bawku.MethodologyA case study method was used in the study. This approach allowed the researchers todo a critical investigation and analysis about the kind of measures the Bawku MunicipalAssembly and other institutions have put in place for prompting, preventing and managingconflicts. Data collection and presentation were more qualitative in nature and purposivesampling technique was equally used to select the Municipal Assembly, 5 Zonal Councils outof 12, settlement sections and 19 functional departments/organizations for interview.
Besidesrandom sampling technique was used to select 60 respondents each from both Kusasi andMamprusi settlements and interviewed. An intensive desk study was done to review theliterature. The six Sub-districts apart from the urban council were randomly selected for thestudy and they included: Bawku Urban Council, Mognori Zonal Council, Zawsi ZonalCouncil, Kuka-Zabugu Zonal Council and Binduri Area Council (now a District). Desk studywas also done to review Medium Term Development Plans (MTDPs), Kusasis andMamprusis mediation reports and other relevant literature for the studyConceptualizing Planning As A Tool For Conflict ManagementConflictConflict has been a difficult concept to define and authors on the subject have notbeen able to come out with a common definition. However, conflict generally can be definedas a natural disagreement resulting from individuals or groups that differ in attitudes, beliefs,values or needs. It can also originate from past rivalries and personality differences. It is alsoseen as a social phenomenon that can result from instantaneous or gradual changes that creatediverging interests and needs.
This means that conflicts are inevitable in mans environmentand they do occur in situations where actors have incompatible goals. Indeed, it is apurposeful behavior by protagonists in order to capture more of the scarce resources, and/orto overcome the strategies of other protagonists (Chris, 2004: 4) or otherwise to fight for whatis due him or her. Also, Ninsin (1995) considered conflict as a struggle for access toopportunities, life chances-to the existing rights and privileges of society which definecitizenship within the nation-state. Citizenship here refers to the rights and obligationsassociated with membership of the nation-state. Furthermore conflict is the means by whichdeprived groups seek to attain those rights and privileges which define ones opinion in theprevailing political order. Therefore, denial of these; what Darhrendorf (1990) callsentitlements, is a denial of citizenship and an invitation to conflict.For the purpose of this work it can be stated that: conflict occurs when competinggroups goals, objectives, needs or values clash and hang unresolved, leading to the built upof frustration and aggression.Conflict Management At The District LevelManagement in this context means the generation and implementation of tangibleimprovements in a conflict situation. Therefore, conflict management can be thought of asmaking progress.
As part of improving the situation, progress can include ideas fordeveloping mutual gains, learning, resolving disputes, achieving agreement, and laying afoundation for future negotiations (Ramirez, 2002). This process can be facilitated throughlegitimate and democratic institutions.
This definition could be extended to cover all theefforts that go into handling conflict with its intricacies as experienced in Bawku. Thoughthe definitions are relevant to this work, they will be more effective in the managementprocess if stages of conflict are defined using levels of violence as demonstrated bySamarasinghe (1999) in figure 1 where he has classified the stages into five levels.Source: Samarasinghe, S. W (1999).Figure 2: Three Dimensional Planning Model for Conflict ManagementSource: Adapted/modified Afrom Aasoglenang (201B1: 43)Basic Approach towards Pre-conflict Management PlanningEarly Warning System Approach The purpose of EW system is to identify and track indicators of emerging conflict(s).
The system is more effective when a district is in the web of crisis life cycle, whereby it has experienced all the phases of conflict. In order to gather information on EW signs tofactor in an evaluation of perception variables that help understand why individuals andgroups take action against the state and resort to violence. In the light of this, Anthony (1988)identified the economic, political and social-cultural sub-systems of society as the point oforigin of the crisis which in some circumstances, lead to the de - legitimization of the stateand political eruption. These sub-systems should therefore be the areas of monitoring andassessment of EW indicators and signs (see fig 3). Within the scope of planning districts canachieve the above by developing appropriate mechanisms for information collection andanalysis on issues of conflicts. Indicators of conflicts must be identified, then monitored andevaluated by an impartial and multi-disciplinary team for the purpose of taking appropriatemeasures to deal with all forms of conflicts identified.Source: Adopted from Aasoglenang (2011. 38)It is apparent from the above discourse that violent conflict will not occur ifpreconflict preventive plan is effectively in place because the earlier the reaction to an incipientconflict, the greater the opportunity of reversing a deteriorating situation.
We can beforewarned of impending crisis through early warning indicators or signs (SAIS, 2004).Warning therefore enhances basically three goals: prevention, mitigation andConflict AnalysisIt is important to note that management procedures put in place to overcome conflictwill not achieve the desire results without analyzing it. In view of this it is crucial to examineand understand it from various standpoints.
That is, the first step in conflict management is toanalyze the conflict situation. This should generally be done first in non-intrusive ways inorder to avoid making the situation worse (Huggins, 2004). Therefore, this should betaken into consideration when doing desktop analysis of conflict, which generally addressesthree interrelated aspects: the nature of the conflict, its boundaries (geographical, temporal,and socio-cultural) and finally the actors directly or indirectly involved in the conflict. Forthis aspect to be achieved, it will require some fundamental conflict analysis tools for theplanning process.
Lewer and Freyer (2004) identified the tools to include conflict mapping,the onion, conflict tree, the ABC-triangle, force field analysis, pillars and the pyramid. It isonly through such multi-dimensional approach to conflict analysis that can diagnose thedimensions of conflict and help inform the Assembly about the choice of conflictmanagement method/style to adopt.Post-Conflict Management PlanningPost conflict management is vital to providing a stable and sustainable environmentfor development to thrive. Therefore, no price should be too high to pay in the quest forpeace and no sacrifice should also be regarded to be too much to arrive at permanent andlasting peace (Daily Graphic, 16.2.2005: 13). In this regard, it is important to note thatconflict, be it violent or non-violent requires stable institutions and stakeholders to transformit positively to an appreciable level, for it is believed that it was better for Government tonegotiate with internal dissidents earlier rather than waiting until it gets worse (Zartman,1995). Hence, the need for appropriate tools and approaches to manage conflicts.
Against thisbackdrop, two basic approaches have been suggested. These are either the Integrative orDistributive approaches (Brilhart and Galanes, 1995). The distributive approach suggests thatwhat one person gains is at the expense of another.
The integrative approach is a win-winsituation which also assumes that conflict can be managed in such a manner that all aggrievedparties end up being winners. Whiles opting for the best approach; it should be so donewithin the context of planning because post-conflict warning signals need to be contained toprevent subsequent escalation.Discussion Of ResultsDynamics of the ConflictTo assess the impact made so far by the Bawku Municipal Assembly and partners inthe mediation process, aspects of the study was conducted solely among households of themain actors, that is, the Kusasi and Mamprusis about their perception of the conflict withinthe Municipality. The data generated and presented in table 1 shows mixed feelings amongthe respondents from both tribes. For instance, 23.5% of the Kusasis and 30% of theMamprusis were of the view that the conflict should continue. With regard to the effort madeby the Assembly in the management of the conflict, 48.3% of the Mamprusi were of theopinion that the Assembly did not do well as against 36.7% of the Kusasis.
The reasons werethat the Assembly has also contributed to the conflict since some staff had not lived abovereproach in terms of equitable distribution of resources and Assembly Members deeplypolarized on ethnic and party lines. Also 61.7% of the Kusasis had the suspicion that theMamprusi could fight back at any moment and 70% of the Mamprusis had the sameimpression. It is obvious that the suspicion held by each of the ethnic groups against the othermeans there is a breach of trust. The Municipal Assembly which is the Planning Authoritymust therefore take precaution against any possible escalationFREQUENCY OF RESPONSES KUSASI MAMPRUSI TotalSource: Adapted from Aasoglenang (2011. 62)Mechanisms For Conflict ManagementFor sustained peace to prevail in conflict districts there should be the need for theAssemblies come out with plans that prevent pre-conflicts and also manage end-results of itas illustrated in the conflict planning model (figure 2).Pre-Conflict ExperienceA study of past plans revealed that conflict was not a major issue to be concerned withby the Bawku Municipal Assembly.
But for the 2002-2004 Medium Term Development Plan(MTDP) there was an acknowledgement of conflict in it as a major constraint to theimplementation of development plans. However, the content of the plan had no deliberatedesigned strategies and programs that explicitly focus on considering conflict as adevelopment challenge requiring pragmatic management.
Consequently there was no singlebudget line created as is always the case for all identified key development challenges in theMTDP to address the issues of conflict in Bawku. Two way implications can be derived fromthe findings: firstly that the issue of conflict has been trivialized and secondly the planningfunctions of the Assembly have not been interpreted to include the powers or mandate to plantowards the prevention, resolution and management of the numerous and hydra-headedconflicts in the Municipality.Currently it is the Air Borne Force (ABF) stationed in Bawku, the Municipal SecurityCommittee (MUSEC) and other security agencies that have taken over to prevent conflictsand maintain peace. But are they capable of undertaking pre-conflict managementresponsibilities as they relate to the development of the Municipality? Certainly they will notbe able. Though the security forces have been managing the conflict through peaceenforcement, there is unlikely to be true conflict prevention and transformation without theactive involvement and commitment of the local actors. The Assembly and other third forceconflict mediators to the Bawku conflicts should in this wise take a cue that conflicts arecaused by human actions and they will only be properly managed by the same human actions.Post-Conflict ExperienceAnalyzed data also show that management of post-conflict has the same outlook asthe pre-conflict management process.
For example, there are no institutional arrangementsput in place to handle the end-results of the conflict in a sustained manner. However, furtherfindings indicated that after the 2000/2001 deadly conflict the Assembly supported theBawku Peace Initiative to start a mediation forum between the Mamprusis and Kusasis. Aspart of the outcome of the mediation process, both the Mamprusis and Kusasis spelt out fivepoint resolutions each to be observed and respected by all for peace to prevail in theMunicipality.
But for about a decade now the respective resolutions have not been observed342(Text Box 1 contains the respective resolutions). It is evident from the analysis that farmlandsconfiscated from the Mamprusis have not been returned and intermarriages were still notencouraged. The Bawku Naba, though recognized and given all the courtesies he deserves byhis kinsmen and visitors to the Municipality, not the Mamprusis and other individuals fromother minor tribes recognizes him as the Bawku Naba.
This state of affair indicates that theconflict management approach adopted in 2001 during the mediation forum and thereafterwas more distributive and did not address the fundamental issues(s) probably due to thecomplex nature of the disagreement.Mamprusis1. Use the patronage of the Bawku marketas a unifying force for the people2.
Use intermarriages between the Kusasisand Mamprusis as unifying force3. Stop land confiscation especially among farmers4. Confirm president nominee as MCE5.
Allow all people especially councilworkers to go back to their work places.The Bawku Naba should be recognized andgiven respect by all official guests to thetown2. The present political authority (Assembly)be recognized and respected by all3. All should do away with violence for peace4.
All should respect and patronize each others socio-cultural practices.5. Groups should use dialogue as a means of resolving all disputes Source: Adapted from Aasoglenang (2011.
60)Conflict Management and its Implications on the MTDP of the AssemblyThe MTDP of the Assembly is the main development policy framework shaping thedevelopment path of the district. Therefore, for any development policy objective to beachieved it must be operated in an environment devoid of violence. The study indicated thatdue to intermittent conflicts, successive MTDPs of the Municipality over the years have notbeen successfully implemented. This implies that the development projects expected tospread and reduce poverty did not all come to pass. The current conflict management strategyadopted by the assembly to entirely rely on the security agencies and occasional educationalcampaigns offer no convincing hope for the future. It is therefore likely that future MTDPswill continue not to see the light of the day so far as the conflict was not handled as adevelopment challenge requiring rigorous planning but rather a constraint outside thecapability of the Assembly.Identification and Management of Conflict SignalsThe findings show that currently there are conflicting indicators in the Municipalitythat have one point in time generated into violent and nonviolent conflicts.
The study furtherrevealed that some of the indicators especially those related to land were seriously loomingcome to naught if the Assembly does not treat the conflict as a major development challengerequiring a project and designing fund raising proposals to source for the development andimplementation of the plans. This step is necessary because public sector budget will not beenough to sustain the implementation of such plans.Inputs for Designing Effective Conflict Management PlansAn interview with 20 institutions, organizations including the Assembly revealed thatthere was the need to get all the stakeholders to the conflicts together to identify potentialconflict indicators to be incorporated into the MTDP of the Assembly and developed into astrategic plan to guide in the management of the conflict in a more pragmatic way.
The datarevealed that their inclusion will generate important information needed for the exercise andalso support the initiative. On the part of committing resources into designing conflict plansthe Assembly indicated its preparedness to fund such a project. Further interview with 6 outof the 11 Organizations that supported the Bawku Peace Initiative (BPI) in 2001 alsosuggested that they were prepared to provide funds and or other resources to support theimplementation of any conflict management plan for the area.Conflict Monitoring TeamThe study indicated that an effective team constituted to routinely monitor issues ofconflict in the field for timely responses was absent in the district. Some interest groups thatcould be part of the planned monitoring team were however identified by respondents toinclude; Civil Society Organizations involved in peace and justice related projects, Faithbased organizations (FBO), Representatives of traditional leaders from all the ethnic groups,the Assembly including Municipal Security Committee (MUSEC), youth and women leadersetc.
A team with such a composition will spread the representation; build trust and confidenceamong stakeholders and lead to effective and objective evaluation of information gathered bythe team. Such monitoring assignments could inform the authority early enough about theunderlying conditions that promote conflict and inform the appropriate institution of anylooming danger for decisive action to be taken to avoid any future confrontation or violence.ConclusionsFrom the beginning, the study set out to assess whether the Municipal Assemblyconsidered the recurrent conflicts in the district as a development problem that contributes topoverty spread and in that light whether planning as a tool is being used to manage theconflict. At the end of the study it was revealed that conflict was duly acknowledged in theMTDPs of the Assembly but no institutional arrangement was put in place to developrelevant long-term plans to address it.
Also in so far as the Assembly has never planned tomanage the conflict, no budget has ever been prepared purposely to support conflictmanagement. Besides, though the conflict over the years has been mediated, the dynamics ofit suggest that both Kusasis and Mamprusis were still holding onto entrenched positions.Based on the fact that the re-occurrence of the conflict was eminent the responsibilityrests on the Assembly to identify all early warning signals to be monitored against anypossible escalation. The point of origin of the signals cut across the economic, political andsocial-cultural sub-system of the people.
In this case a plan that involved objective mindedpersons to monitor and gather information on them on the ground would be crucial tomanaging the conflict in a sustained manner.Recommendations For Strategic Institutional ActionWithin the context of National Development Policy directives, Metropolitan,Municipal and District Assemblies with powers conferred on them are responsible for thepromotion of development. However, development in its true sense cannot be achieved in aconflict environment and hence the responsibility lies with the MMDAs in Ghana to manageall conflicts when they erupt. Issues emerging from the study however show that the BawkuMunicipal Assembly conflict management processes were based on ad hoc measures and notguided by any institutionalized plan.
The needed Strategic Institutional Actions to be adoptedin this regard is aimed at guiding the Municipal Assembly and other developmentorganizations interested in managing the conflict in the Municipality and elsewhere tointegrate conflict management processes in their MTDP framework. These include thefollowing;Conflict Management PlanIt is important for the Assembly to seriously mainstream conflict in the MTDP of theAssembly detailing the processes and indicators that should go into it.
It should also beguided by an activity plan and a monitoring and evaluation framework. More importantly, abudget line should be created for it to support annual action plans. Besides, the Bawkuconflict has passed through all the stages of conflicts and in this respect it will be appropriateto tailor the plan to cater for both pre-conflict and post-conflict phases as depicted in figure 2.Post-conflict phase in particular is the most fragile phase/period where the risk of aresumption of conflict is high. There is therefore the need to continuously plan to cater forrisk monitoring and assessment.Strengthening the Capacity of Municipal Planning and Coordinating Unit (MPCU)For any pragmatic conflict management plan to be developed it will certainly be theresponsibility of the MPCU to facilitate the process. In so far as the Unit is not familiar withwhat it takes to come out with conflict prevention, resolution and management plan(s) andtheir implementation, it is necessary to strengthen its capacity in critical aspects of conflictplanning. This attempt will enable the MPCU stay focused and position itself better in theidentification of all necessary indicators that should go into the preparation andimplementation of conflict plans.Decentralized Institutional Arrangement for Conflict ManagementThe fact that the conflict affects everybody in all parts of the Municipality gives roomto believe that its re-generation could start from any corner of the Municipality. Followingfrom this it is relevant to position the Municipal Assembly and the sub-structures in a mannerthat will enable them to play more active roles in conflict management.
This arrangement willinvolve developing appropriate mechanisms for information collection and analysis on issuesof early warning signals at the grass roots. This will have to be done through a local networkof relevant stakeholders who are familiar with the area and the context of the conflict to carryout the day-to-day monitoring of changing variables.Conflict Monitoring and Evaluation TeamThere is the need to form a functional, impartial and multi-disciplinary monitoringteam to routinely track conflict related issues along the lines of the decentralized structures.Capitalization of Conflict Management ProgramsThe preparation and implementation of conflict management program(s) involve ahuge capital outlay. The Assembly on its own will find it difficult to support such a program.In this respect, it has to raise funds externally to complement internal mobilized ones in viewof the fact that organizations and donors may be willing to support peace initiatives in thearea. However, before such organizations could respond, the challenge will be on the MPCUto develop convincing fund raising proposals to get them committed to support any conflictNeed for Synergy Building in Conflict Prevention and ManagementThere is the need for an effective synergy building between the government andtraditional political authorities to find a holistic and sustained solution to the impasse.Aasoglenang. The Relevance of Planning in Conflict Management in Ghana. LAPLambert Academic Publishing GmbH.
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